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Europe and Western Russia
Map of European Habitats

The climate of Europe is strongly influenced by the ocean. Much of Europe is in the northern high latitudes. London, England and Paris, France, for example, are at the same latitude as the boundary between the United States and Canada. Many European countries, including England, Ireland, Germany, Poland, Norway and Sweden are all above 45 degrees North latitude. Even though these countries are far north, their winters are not as harsh as winters at the same latitudes in North America. Temperatures do not drop as low and severe winter storms do not happen as often. Less severe winters give way to a long growing season that supports the agriculture needed to feed Europe's large population.

The reason Europe’s climate is more moderate than climates in other northerly locations lies in the ocean. In the western Atlantic, a strong warm water current, known as the Gulf Stream carries warm tropical waters towards the northern Atlantic. The Gulf Stream travels along the coast of North America. As it continues its northward journey, it flows eastward into the North Atlantic Current. Cold air traveling from Canada towards Europe warms as it passes over the North Atlantic Current. The air that reaches Europe is warmer than the cold air that left Canada. This is why the European winters are not as cold as winters at the same latitudes in North America. Scientists predict that if the Gulf Stream did not exist, Europe would probably be much colder than it is now and it would not be able to support the agriculture needed for its large population.

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Photograph of the Coast The ocean moderates Europe’s climate. (Photograph courtesy NOAA central library photo collection)

Map of Sea Surface Temperature in the North Atlantic
Northern Habitats

There are many types of natural habitat and vegetation in this part of the world. Three kinds of habitat predominate in the northern parts of Europe and western Russia; sea ice, tundra, and boreal forest.

Sea Ice: Much of the arctic ocean north of Europe and Russia remains frozen year-round. Many land and sea animals are dependent on sea ice. For example, polar bears are dependent on sea ice for hunting; they wait on ice floes for seals to come to the surface. Seals depend on sea ice as a place to give birth and raise their young.

This image shows values of sea surface temperature from satellite observations. Cold waters are shown in black, green, and blue while warm waters are shown as red, yellow, and white.

The Gulf Stream is visible as a warm water current travelling northward along the coast of North America and eastward into the central Atlantic Ocean. As it continues its journey heat from the ocean is lost to the atmosphere, warming the air above it. (Map by Robert Simmon)

Photograph of Polar Bears

Tundra: Tundra covers the land where climate is too severe for trees to survive. Summers in the tundra are very short and cool. Winters are long and severe. Day length varies dramatically with season. At the peak of summer, the sun is visible for 2 hours low on the horizon. At the peak of winter, there is no sunlight at all for 24 hours. Average yearly temperatures range from -70 degrees to 20 degrees F. Although the tundra is a cold place, very little precipitation occurs. On average, less than 200 mm (8") of precipitation falls per year.

The ground of the tundra is called permafrost. Permafrost extends from the surface to a depth of 300 meters (1000ft). In the summer, the top 10-60 cm (4-24") of the permafrost melts. The permafrost prevents animals from hibernating in burrows in the ground during winter.

Tundra vegetation consists of grasses, sedges, lichens and willow shrubs. Most tundra plants grow flat on the ground to avoid the drying cold winds. Shrubs may be several meters high in southern reaches of the tundra, but shorten toward the north until they lie flat along the ground. Some plants are so low and densely packed that they are called “cushion plants”.

Not many kinds of animals live year-round in the tundra. Most birds and mammals only use the tundra as a summer home. Mammals that do live year-round in the tundra include the musk-ox, Arctic wolf, and brown bear. Animals that do not live in the tundra year-round migrate during winter to warmer locations. Migrating animals of the tundra include many birds such as the waterfowl and shorebirds. These birds nest in the tundra shrubbery in summer, migrating to the milder climates before the winter season sets in.

Musk-ox, caribou and reindeer are the dominant grazing animals of the tundra. They feed on grasses, sedge, lichen and willow. Arctic hares, or snowshoe rabbits, and lemmings feed on grass and sedge. Predators include the wolf, arctic fox, polar bear, brown bear, and snowy owl. Some mammals and birds turn white in winter for camouflage, brown again in summer. The permafrost prevents most animals from hibernating in burrows in the ground during winter.

The tundra ecosystem is extremely sensitive to disturbance with little ability to restore itself. Disruption of vegetative cover causes permafrost to melt deeply, causing collapse of ground and loss of soil.

Boreal Forest: This habitat (also called the Taiga) occurs generally to the south of tundra, and receives more precipitation than the tundra. Precipitation tends to be spread throughout the year, with heavy snow during winter, and rain during the summer.

Polar Bears Ursus maritimus (Photograph courtesy U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service)

Photograph of the Boreal Forest
Coniferous trees (or “conifers”) dominate the boreal forest all across the northern hemisphere. Coniferous trees are evergreen (they keep their leaves all year) with needle shaped leaves, and include familiar trees like pines, firs, and spruces. The size of trees in the boreal forest decreases from south to north. As one gets further north, the boreal forest consists of smaller and smaller trees until one reaches land where the climate is too cold and dry for trees to grow at all. Needleleaf trees are well adapted to cold climates—their “Christmas tree” shape helps heavy snow slide off during the winter so that their branches don't break. Mosses and lichens cover the ground beneath the trees.

Common animals of the boreal forest in this part of the world are red deer, musk deer, wild caribou, brown bear, sable and wolves. Just like in the tundra habitat, animals in the boreal forest have strategies to avoid the winter season. Many birds migrate and many mammals hibernate in burrows under the snow. Also, just like in the tundra, many mammals that stay active during the winter turn white for camouflage in the winter snow.

Evergreens dominate the boreal forest. (Photograph courtesy NASA Goddard Space Flight Center BOREAS Project)

Mid-latitude Habitats

Summers are warmer and longer in the mid-latitudes, so growing seasons are longer. The primary habitats in the southern parts of Europe and Russia are broadleaf forest, Mediterranean vegetation, steppe and desert.

Temperate Broadleaf Forest: Forests south of Scandinavia and Siberia include broadleaf trees. Broadleaf trees in the temperate zone are deciduous, which means that they shed their leaves during the winter. Prior to falling, leaves change color as chlorophyll is lost from the leaves. The change in leaf color from green to bright red, yellow and orange is a familiar sight in the autumn for people that live in this type of habitat. Common broadleaf trees are maple, oak, hickory, and beech and sycamore. Mixed forests contain needleleaf trees like hemlock, spruce, and fir.

Mid-latitude deciduous forests have both a warm and a cold season. Precipitation ranges from 30 to 60 inches and is evenly distributed throughout the year. The soils in this part of the world tend to be very fertile. Fertile soils and a long, 5 to 6 month, growing season explain why much of this type of habitat has been converted into agricultural land. Much of earth's human population lives in this climatic zone.

Mediterranean vegetation: This habitat occurs where summers are warm and dry, and where winters are cool and rainy. The Mediterranean-type climate occurs roughly between 30 degrees and 40 degrees latitude on the west coasts of the continents, where there are cold ocean currants offshore. Summer temperatures are moderated by the cold ocean water and the fogs they produce. Total annual precipitation ranges between 15 and 40 inches per year

Throughout the world, the Mediterranean habitat is characterized by shrubs. Plants are adapted to withstand droughts, and many are adapted to regrow or sprout quickly after fire. In most regions these shrubs are evergreen and have small, leathery leaves. Many typical shrubs have strong aromas (for example, sage, rosemary, thyme, and oregano) and contain highly flammable oils. Certain trees, like live oaks and olive trees, are also characteristic of Mediterranean climates.

Short Grass Prairie: Southern Russia and Kazakhstan include regions of short grass prairie, also called steppe. The steppe habitat is a dry, cold, grassland that is found in all of the continents except Australia and Antarctica. Worldwide, steppes experience long droughts and violent winds. The average rainfall is 10-30 inches per year. Rain evaporates rapidly, due primarily to strong winds, reaching only the top 25 cm of the soil.

Steppes are found in the middle of continents and in the lee of high mountains. There is too little precipitation for trees to grow except near rivers. Grasses grow in bunches and have extensive root systems. Agriculture is difficult in steppes and humans in these areas are commonly nomadic herders.

A lot of the animals that live in steppe are grazing animals, such as rabbits, antelopes, and wild horses. Vegetation provides little cover from predators, so many animals rely on speed (such as antelope) or burrows (such as prairie dogs) to avoid capture.

Desert: The desert that occurs in this part of the world occurs mainly in the country of Kazakhstan, east of the Caspian Sea. Daily temperature variation is more extreme in dry climates, thus it is common for deserts to experience very hot days and very cold nights. All deserts receive very little precipitation. Inland deserts form where air masses have lost most of their water vapor after traveling overland for long distances.

Desert vegetation typically consists of well-spaced shrubs, succulents and cactus. In typical desert shrubs, the leaves are small and waxy to prevent water loss, and shiny to reflect sunlight and prevent overheating. Succulents and cactus have thick fleshy leaves or stems that can store water. Spines protect these plants form herbivores.

Desert animals exhibit many adaptations to drought, including the ability to live without drinking water (their metabolic water is obtained entirely from plants). Lizards, snakes, and rodents are well adapted to dry environments. Many species are active only at night (or early and late in the day in diurnal species), when the humidity is higher and the temperature lower. Camels are one of the few large mammals that are well adapted to desert.

Without irrigation, agriculture is not possible in deserts, thus very few desert plants are cultivated (prickly pears and agaves only recently). Because of this, many desert peoples are nomadic, and a few large mammals of the desert (like camels) were domesticated for transportation.

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	PES » Global Warming » Information Center » Europe and Western Russia
	The climate of Europe is strongly influenced by the ocean. Much of Europe is in the northern high latitudes. London, England and Paris, France, for example, are at the same latitude as the boundary between the United States and Canada. Many European countries, including England, Ireland, Germany, Poland, Norway and Sweden are all above 45 degrees North latitude. Even though these countries are far north, their winters are not as harsh as winters at the same latitudes in North America. Temperatures do not drop as low and severe winter storms do not happen as often. Less severe winters give way to a long growing season that supports the agriculture needed to feed Europe's large population. The reason Europe’s climate is more moderate than climates in other northerly locations lies in the ocean. In the western Atlantic, a strong warm water current, known as the Gulf Stream carries warm tropical waters towards the northern Atlantic. The Gulf Stream travels along the coast of North America. As it continues its northward journey, it flows eastward into the North Atlantic Current. Cold air traveling from Canada towards Europe warms as it passes over the North Atlantic Current. The air that reaches Europe is warmer than the cold air that left Canada. This is why the European winters are not as cold as winters at the same latitudes in North America. Scientists predict that if the Gulf Stream did not exist, Europe would probably be much colder than it is now and it would not be able to support the agriculture needed for its large population.		forward: Questions back: Information Center browse: Table of Contents The ocean moderates Europe’s climate. (Photograph courtesy NOAA central library photo collection)
	Northern Habitats There are many types of natural habitat and vegetation in this part of the world. Three kinds of habitat predominate in the northern parts of Europe and western Russia; sea ice, tundra, and boreal forest. Sea Ice: Much of the arctic ocean north of Europe and Russia remains frozen year-round. Many land and sea animals are dependent on sea ice. For example, polar bears are dependent on sea ice for hunting; they wait on ice floes for seals to come to the surface. Seals depend on sea ice as a place to give birth and raise their young.		This image shows values of sea surface temperature from satellite observations. Cold waters are shown in black, green, and blue while warm waters are shown as red, yellow, and white. The Gulf Stream is visible as a warm water current travelling northward along the coast of North America and eastward into the central Atlantic Ocean. As it continues its journey heat from the ocean is lost to the atmosphere, warming the air above it. (Map by Robert Simmon)
	Tundra: Tundra covers the land where climate is too severe for trees to survive. Summers in the tundra are very short and cool. Winters are long and severe. Day length varies dramatically with season. At the peak of summer, the sun is visible for 2 hours low on the horizon. At the peak of winter, there is no sunlight at all for 24 hours. Average yearly temperatures range from -70 degrees to 20 degrees F. Although the tundra is a cold place, very little precipitation occurs. On average, less than 200 mm (8") of precipitation falls per year. The ground of the tundra is called permafrost. Permafrost extends from the surface to a depth of 300 meters (1000ft). In the summer, the top 10-60 cm (4-24") of the permafrost melts. The permafrost prevents animals from hibernating in burrows in the ground during winter. Tundra vegetation consists of grasses, sedges, lichens and willow shrubs. Most tundra plants grow flat on the ground to avoid the drying cold winds. Shrubs may be several meters high in southern reaches of the tundra, but shorten toward the north until they lie flat along the ground. Some plants are so low and densely packed that they are called “cushion plants”. Not many kinds of animals live year-round in the tundra. Most birds and mammals only use the tundra as a summer home. Mammals that do live year-round in the tundra include the musk-ox, Arctic wolf, and brown bear. Animals that do not live in the tundra year-round migrate during winter to warmer locations. Migrating animals of the tundra include many birds such as the waterfowl and shorebirds. These birds nest in the tundra shrubbery in summer, migrating to the milder climates before the winter season sets in. Musk-ox, caribou and reindeer are the dominant grazing animals of the tundra. They feed on grasses, sedge, lichen and willow. Arctic hares, or snowshoe rabbits, and lemmings feed on grass and sedge. Predators include the wolf, arctic fox, polar bear, brown bear, and snowy owl. Some mammals and birds turn white in winter for camouflage, brown again in summer. The permafrost prevents most animals from hibernating in burrows in the ground during winter. The tundra ecosystem is extremely sensitive to disturbance with little ability to restore itself. Disruption of vegetative cover causes permafrost to melt deeply, causing collapse of ground and loss of soil. Boreal Forest: This habitat (also called the Taiga) occurs generally to the south of tundra, and receives more precipitation than the tundra. Precipitation tends to be spread throughout the year, with heavy snow during winter, and rain during the summer.		Polar Bears Ursus maritimus (Photograph courtesy U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service)
	Coniferous trees (or “conifers”) dominate the boreal forest all across the northern hemisphere. Coniferous trees are evergreen (they keep their leaves all year) with needle shaped leaves, and include familiar trees like pines, firs, and spruces. The size of trees in the boreal forest decreases from south to north. As one gets further north, the boreal forest consists of smaller and smaller trees until one reaches land where the climate is too cold and dry for trees to grow at all. Needleleaf trees are well adapted to cold climates—their “Christmas tree” shape helps heavy snow slide off during the winter so that their branches don't break. Mosses and lichens cover the ground beneath the trees. Common animals of the boreal forest in this part of the world are red deer, musk deer, wild caribou, brown bear, sable and wolves. Just like in the tundra habitat, animals in the boreal forest have strategies to avoid the winter season. Many birds migrate and many mammals hibernate in burrows under the snow. Also, just like in the tundra, many mammals that stay active during the winter turn white for camouflage in the winter snow.		Evergreens dominate the boreal forest. (Photograph courtesy NASA Goddard Space Flight Center BOREAS Project)
	Mid-latitude Habitats Summers are warmer and longer in the mid-latitudes, so growing seasons are longer. The primary habitats in the southern parts of Europe and Russia are broadleaf forest, Mediterranean vegetation, steppe and desert. Temperate Broadleaf Forest: Forests south of Scandinavia and Siberia include broadleaf trees. Broadleaf trees in the temperate zone are deciduous, which means that they shed their leaves during the winter. Prior to falling, leaves change color as chlorophyll is lost from the leaves. The change in leaf color from green to bright red, yellow and orange is a familiar sight in the autumn for people that live in this type of habitat. Common broadleaf trees are maple, oak, hickory, and beech and sycamore. Mixed forests contain needleleaf trees like hemlock, spruce, and fir. Mid-latitude deciduous forests have both a warm and a cold season. Precipitation ranges from 30 to 60 inches and is evenly distributed throughout the year. The soils in this part of the world tend to be very fertile. Fertile soils and a long, 5 to 6 month, growing season explain why much of this type of habitat has been converted into agricultural land. Much of earth's human population lives in this climatic zone. Mediterranean vegetation: This habitat occurs where summers are warm and dry, and where winters are cool and rainy. The Mediterranean-type climate occurs roughly between 30 degrees and 40 degrees latitude on the west coasts of the continents, where there are cold ocean currants offshore. Summer temperatures are moderated by the cold ocean water and the fogs they produce. Total annual precipitation ranges between 15 and 40 inches per year Throughout the world, the Mediterranean habitat is characterized by shrubs. Plants are adapted to withstand droughts, and many are adapted to regrow or sprout quickly after fire. In most regions these shrubs are evergreen and have small, leathery leaves. Many typical shrubs have strong aromas (for example, sage, rosemary, thyme, and oregano) and contain highly flammable oils. Certain trees, like live oaks and olive trees, are also characteristic of Mediterranean climates. Short Grass Prairie: Southern Russia and Kazakhstan include regions of short grass prairie, also called steppe. The steppe habitat is a dry, cold, grassland that is found in all of the continents except Australia and Antarctica. Worldwide, steppes experience long droughts and violent winds. The average rainfall is 10-30 inches per year. Rain evaporates rapidly, due primarily to strong winds, reaching only the top 25 cm of the soil. Steppes are found in the middle of continents and in the lee of high mountains. There is too little precipitation for trees to grow except near rivers. Grasses grow in bunches and have extensive root systems. Agriculture is difficult in steppes and humans in these areas are commonly nomadic herders. A lot of the animals that live in steppe are grazing animals, such as rabbits, antelopes, and wild horses. Vegetation provides little cover from predators, so many animals rely on speed (such as antelope) or burrows (such as prairie dogs) to avoid capture. Desert: The desert that occurs in this part of the world occurs mainly in the country of Kazakhstan, east of the Caspian Sea. Daily temperature variation is more extreme in dry climates, thus it is common for deserts to experience very hot days and very cold nights. All deserts receive very little precipitation. Inland deserts form where air masses have lost most of their water vapor after traveling overland for long distances. Desert vegetation typically consists of well-spaced shrubs, succulents and cactus. In typical desert shrubs, the leaves are small and waxy to prevent water loss, and shiny to reflect sunlight and prevent overheating. Succulents and cactus have thick fleshy leaves or stems that can store water. Spines protect these plants form herbivores. Desert animals exhibit many adaptations to drought, including the ability to live without drinking water (their metabolic water is obtained entirely from plants). Lizards, snakes, and rodents are well adapted to dry environments. Many species are active only at night (or early and late in the day in diurnal species), when the humidity is higher and the temperature lower. Camels are one of the few large mammals that are well adapted to desert. Without irrigation, agriculture is not possible in deserts, thus very few desert plants are cultivated (prickly pears and agaves only recently). Because of this, many desert peoples are nomadic, and a few large mammals of the desert (like camels) were domesticated for transportation.
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Northern Habitats

Mid-latitude Habitats